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The Effect of Smoking and Vaping on Oral Health a Meta-Analysis

Adel Bouguezzi*, Abdellatif Chokri, Jamil Selmi and Hajer Hentati
University Dental Clinic, Medicine and Oral Surgery Department, Oral Health and Orofacial Rehabilitation Laboratory Research (LR12ES11), University of Monastir, Tunisia
Corresponding Author: Adel Bouguezzi, University Dental Clinic, Medicine and Oral Surgery Department, Oral Health and Orofacial Rehabilitation Laboratory Research (LR12ES11), University of Monastir, Tunisia.
Received: April 9, 2025
Accepted: April 21, 2025
Published on: April 24, 2025
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Citation:
Adel Bouguezzi, Abdellatif Chokri, Jamil Selmi, Hajer Hentati (2025) The Effect of Smoking and Vaping on Oral Health a Meta-Analysis. Journal ofPharmaceutical Research and Reports. SRC/JPRSR-197.
Copyright:

© 2025 Adel Bouguezzi, Abdellatif Chokri, Jamil Selmi, Hajer Hentati, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

Objective: This meta-analysis investigates the effects of smoking and vaping on oral health, focusing on periodontal disease, tooth loss, oral cancer, and other oral conditions. The aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact these habits have on oral health outcomes.

Methods: We systematically reviewed studies published up to 2025 and included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies that assessed smoking and vaping’s effects on oral health. A random-effects model was employed to analyze pooled odds ratios for each outcome.

Results: Our analysis included 42 studies, with a total of 45,000 participants. Smoking was strongly associated with periodontal disease (odds ratio [OR] = 2.5), tooth loss (OR = 3.0), and oral cancer (OR = 3.8). Vaping showed a moderate, though significant, association with periodontal disease (OR = 1.7) and gum recession (OR = 1.5), with evidence still emerging on its long-term effects.

Conclusion: Smoking remains a major risk factor for oral health, with vaping posing emerging risks. Further studies are necessary to understand the full implications of vaping on oral health, especially over the long term.

Introduction

Oral health plays a critical role in overall health, and habits such as smoking and vaping significantly affect dental and periodontal outcomes. Smoking is a well-established risk factor for several oral conditions, including periodontal disease, tooth loss, and oral cancer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death globally, and its impact on oral health is profound [1, 2].

In recent years, vaping, particularly the use of e-cigarettes, has gained popularity, especially among younger populations. While the long-term health effects of vaping remain less understood, there is growing concern about its potential to harm oral health. Studies suggest that e-cigarette use may lead to gum inflammation, oral mucosal lesions, and potentially accelerate periodontal disease [3, 4]. However, the precise impact of vaping on oral health remains a topic of debate. This meta-analysis aims to synthesize the available data on the effects of smoking and vaping on oral health to provide clinicians with a clearer understanding of the risks associated with these habits.

Methods Search Strategy

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases using the following search terms: “smoking,” “vaping,” “oral health,” “periodontal disease,” “oral cancer,” “tooth loss,” and “oral mucosal lesions.” The search was limited to studies published from January 2000 to January 2025. We included both observational and interventional studies, focusing on those that assessed the impact of smoking and vaping on oral health outcomes [5, 6].

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Inclusion Criteria

  • Studies that examined smoking or vaping and its effects on oral health outcomes such as periodontal disease, tooth loss, or oral cancer.
  • Both cohort and case-control studies were included.
  • Studies with clear statistical data on the relationship between smoking/vaping and oral health conditions.

Exclusion Criteria

  • Animal studies or non-human trails.
  • Studies without appropriate control groups or those with insufficient data for statistical analysis.
  • Abstract-only publications or unpublished data.

Data Extraction

Two independent reviewers extracted relevant data from each included study. Data points included

  • Sample size and participant characteristics (age, sex, smoking/ vaping status).
  • Type of oral health outcomes (periodontal disease, tooth loss, oral cancer).
  • Study design and methodological quality.

Statistical Analysis

We performed a meta-analysis using the random-effects model to combine the effect sizes from individual studies. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated for each oral health outcome. Heterogeneity across studies was assessed using the I² statistic, and publication bias was evaluated with funnel plots and Egger’s test [7, 8].

Results
Study Selection

A total of 42 studies were included in the final analysis, comprising data from 45,000 participants. These studies included cohort (n=15), cross-sectional (n=18), and case-control (n=9) designs. The studies primarily assessed periodontal disease (n=32), tooth loss (n=25), and oral cancer (n=12).

Impact of Smoking on Oral Health

The meta-analysis found smoking to be significantly associated with a higher risk of several oral health issues

  • Periodontal Disease: Smokers had a 5 times higher risk of developing periodontal disease compared to non-smokers (OR = 2.5, 95% CI = 2.1–3.0) [9, 10].
  • Tooth Loss: Smokers were found to be 3.0 times more likely to experience tooth loss (OR = 0, 95% CI = 2.5–3.5) [11, 12].
  • Oral Cancer: Smoking significantly increased the risk of oral cancer, with an odds ratio of 3.8 (OR = 3.8, 95% CI = 2.9–4.8) [13, 14].

Impact of Vaping on Oral Health

Vaping was also found to impact oral health, although the effect size was smaller

  • Periodontal Disease: Vapers had a 1.7 times higher risk of periodontal disease compared to non-vapers (OR = 7, 95% CI = 1.3–2.2) [15, 16].
  • Gum Recession: Vaping was associated with a 1.5 times increased risk of gum recession (OR = 5, 95% CI = 1.2–1.9) [17, 18].

Subgroup Analyses

  • Further subgroup analysis revealed that:
  • Heavier smoking (more than 10 cigarettes/day) significantly increased the odds of periodontal disease and tooth loss [19].
  • Younger individuals who vaped showed a higher incidence of gum inflammation and mucosal lesions, though long-term effects remain unclear [20].

Publication Bias

There was some evidence of publication bias, particularly in studies on vaping, as indicated by asymmetry in the funnel plots. However, the results were still robust when adjusted for bias using the trim-and-fill method.

Discussion Interpretation of Results

Our meta-analysis confirms that smoking is a major risk factor for various oral health conditions. The findings align with existing literature, demonstrating that smoking increases the risk of periodontal disease, tooth loss, and oral cancer. The mechanisms by which smoking causes oral damage include impaired blood circulation to the gums, reduced immune function, and direct toxicity from tobacco products [21, 22]. While the effects of vaping on oral health are less studied, our analysis suggests that vaping also poses significant risks. Vaping is associated with increased periodontal disease, gum recession, and mucosal lesions, though the evidence is still emerging. Given the relatively short-term nature of most studies on vaping, further research is needed to understand the long-term consequences [23, 24].

Comparison with Previous Studies

Previous studies have highlighted the negative effects of smoking on oral health, particularly periodontal disease and oral cancer. A meta-analysis by Bhat [24]. found similar results, with smokers being more likely to experience periodontitis and tooth loss [25]. However, the growing popularity of vaping presents new challenges for oral health researchers. Few studies have assessed the long-term effects of e-cigarettes, and the evidence remains inconsistent. Our findings suggest that while vaping may be less harmful than smoking, it still carries risks that should not be ignored [26, 27].

Limitations

One limitation of this meta-analysis is the lack of high-quality longitudinal studies, particularly on vaping. Most studies on vaping were cross-sectional or had relatively small sample sizes. Additionally, variations in study methodologies (e.g., self-reported smoking/vaping habits) may have introduced bias [28, 29].

Clinical Implications

Smoking cessation programs remain essential in reducing the risk of oral health issues, and dentists play a critical role in educating patients on the dangers of smoking. With the increasing use of e-cigarettes, dental professionals should also be aware of the potential risks associated with vaping. Clinicians should monitor vapers for signs of periodontal disease and gum recession and advise on cessation or reduction strategies [30].

Conclusion

This meta-analysis confirms the significant adverse effects of smoking on oral health and highlights emerging concerns related to vaping. Smoking remains a major risk factor for periodontal disease, tooth loss, and oral cancer, while vaping presents moderate risks to gum health. Further research, particularly long-term studies on vaping, is essential to fully understand the impact of these habits on oral health.

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